Mathematical success begins long before pupils meet their first multiplication table. It begins in the earliest years, when we have a real opportunity to shape how children think about number.
Early reading has had sustained attention in recent years. Early maths deserves the same strategic focus, because the foundations it builds are just as important.
In England, the early years foundation stage gives mathematics its own area of learning, and the National Curriculum’s principal focus for Key Stage 1 is confidence and mental fluency with whole numbers, counting and place value.
Rather than limiting teaching to rote counting or recognising numerals, we can build children’s natural mathematical thinking from the start.
Research suggests that ages 5 to 8 are a key window, when children are developing number sense, discovering patterns and building cognitive skills such as working memory and flexible thinking. These skills underpin later maths learning. It is sometimes assumed that meaningful maths learning starts later in primary, but while content becomes more complex, the conceptual foundations can be built much earlier.
Make the most of this window and you’re building mathematical thinking that will last.
For school and trust leaders, the implication is clear: invest where early teaching has the greatest lasting effect, and make sure that early maths gets the same strategic attention as early reading.
Why we have to get early numeracy right
Longitudinal research points to early maths skills as among the strongest predictors of later achievement. A major analysis of six longitudinal studies (Duncan et al., 2007) found that maths skills at school entry predicted later achievement more strongly than early reading or attention skills. The reasons go well beyond counting and calculation.
Executive function skills, such as working memory and cognitive flexibility, develop rapidly in early childhood, particularly between ages 3 and 5, and continue developing into adulthood. These skills are the “how” of learning: following steps, switching strategies and staying focused while solving problems. They are the same mental tools that mathematical thinking relies on.
Because these skills are still developing and respond to experience, the early primary years are a prime opportunity for meaningful support. This is when number sense, spatial reasoning and problem-solving are established and strengthened.
There is an equity dimension too. Differences in maths attainment linked to background can appear very early in children’s schooling. Early, well-targeted teaching is one of the most promising ways to reduce them, and to help all children build the confidence to access more advanced maths later.
How strong early maths skills are built
The benefits become visible around age 8 or 9, as curriculum demands increase. University of Oregon researcher Ben Clarke’s findings, from US research, illustrate the point:
For kids that have a fundamental weakness in mathematics, 80 percent or 90 percent of the time that’s going to be linked to a lack of understanding numbers.
With secure number sense, pupils approach problems with confidence and flexibility. A key factor is working memory: being able to hold one part of a problem in mind while working on another makes multi-step reasoning achievable. These strengths are particularly valuable in applied problem-solving, where pupils need to interpret unfamiliar situations rather than rely on memorised procedures.
Pupils with strong number sense can also adapt when problems are presented in different ways. The earlier these foundations are built, the more lasting their impact, particularly when teaching focuses on strategic thinking and efficient methods such as counting on from a known quantity. Early identification of pupils who are struggling with number, along with well-matched support, can help prevent small gaps becoming significant barriers.
From rote counting to flexible thinking
In the early years there is a valuable opportunity to move beyond counting aloud or recognising digits towards real mathematical understanding.
True fluency rests on number sense: a secure understanding of numerical relationships and the ability to connect counting, number knowledge and basic operations in meaningful ways. It matters more than it is often given credit for.
A US study found that number sense at around age 6 predicted maths achievement two years later. It found that number sense contributed an additional 12% to overall maths achievement and up to 17% to applied problem-solving. The advantage tends to grow as maths becomes more complex.
Number sense is to maths what early decoding is to reading. Without it, pupils can appear proficient in the early years but struggle later with fractions, place value and reasoning tasks that need flexible thinking rather than recall.
The solution lies in rich, engaging maths environments where pupils explore number through multiple representations.
Familiar contexts such as playgrounds, kitchens and shops encourage children to explain their strategies and build conceptual understanding.
Supplemental programmes like Mathseeds can support this, by embedding number sense in real-world contexts through game-based, developmentally appropriate activities.
Strategic moves for leaders
Where can school and trust leaders have the greatest impact on early maths?
- Review your curriculum and resources. Prioritise approaches that build conceptual understanding and number sense rather than procedural memorisation. Many schools will already use teaching for mastery approaches and resources such as the DfE’s Ready-to-progress criteria and NCETM materials. The question is whether they are applied consistently from the earliest years.
- Invest in professional development. Early number teaching is a specialist skill, and not every teacher has had the opportunity to develop it. Check how confident staff feel teaching number sense in the early years, and prioritise training in evidence-informed approaches.
- Look at your classrooms. As Nancy Jordan of the University of Delaware notes in US research:
Often, I’ll go into classrooms with literacy stuff all over the walls, but nothing in terms of numbers.
Early years and primary classrooms should be rich in number, with number lines, games and playful opportunities to practise.
- Assess early. Use assessment in the early years, including the Reception baseline assessment, to identify pupils who need support with number before gaps widen.
- Teach maths as a developmental progression. Help teachers see maths as a continuous journey from counting through to fractions and beyond, rather than a series of isolated year-group objectives.
Build stronger foundations: download the guide
For a practical roadmap to building strong foundations in the early years, download our free guide, ‘Early Numeracy as a Cornerstone of Long-Term Academic Success’, an evidence-based resource for educators committed to closing gaps and building stronger maths foundations for every pupil.
